Light-Emitting Diode (LED) versus High-Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) Efficiency: A Data Envelopment Analysis Approach with Undesirable Output

Road lighting is essential to ensure the safety and comfort of its users, especially in preventing accidents aiding visual tasks. The monumental shift from conventional road technology light-emitting diode (LED) driven by energy efficiency, associated cost savings, environmental concerns system. This study aims investigate performance LED substitution for high-pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) Penang Bridge, Malaysia using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), a frontier-based optimisation approach, modelling energy, cost, environment together, as none previous studies has included together one model. renewable industry that promotes zero carbon emissions potential establish an affordable, clean, carbon-free system lighting, rural areas.